Biosystems and Food Engineering Research Collection
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- PublicationAgricultural atmospheric ammonia: identification & assessment of potential impacts(National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage, 2022-03-21)
; ; ; ; This Irish Wildlife Manual aims to summarise: The effects of emissions of ammonia from intensive agricultural sources and its deposition on biodiversity. The regulatory requirements for the assessment of these effects and the indicators of adverse effects including physical observations and theoretical limits used in modelling assessment. The approach recommended by the Irish EPA and approaches used in various European Countries that are currently used to assess and report on the potential effects of emissions of ammonia from agricultural development. A framework for high-level review of dispersion modelling assessment intended for non-expert users of dispersion models that details a non-technical basis to consider whether the critical components of a dispersion modelling study meet the requirements of dispersion modelling guidance issued by the Irish EPA.225 - PublicationAlgo pasa con ele amoníaco(University College Dublin, 2021-12-07)
; ; ; ; This is a comic aimed at children from the age of eight upwards. It highlights impacts from ammonia in agriculture, plus sources and solutions to the problem.103 - PublicationAmmonia emissions from agriculture and their contribution to fine particulate matter: A review of implications for human health(Elsevier, 2022-12-01)
; ; ; ; Atmospheric ammonia (NH3) released from agriculture is contributing significantly to acidification and atmospheric NH3 may have on human health is much less readily available. The potential direct impact of NH3 on the health of the general public is under-represented in scientific literature, though there have been several studies which indicate that NH3 has a direct effect on the respiratory health of those who handle livestock. These health impacts can include a reduced lung function, irritation to the throat and eyes, and increased coughing and phlegm expulsion. More recent studies have indicated that agricultural NH3 may directly influence the early on-set of asthma in young children. In addition to the potential direct impact of ammonia, it is also a substantial contributor to the fine particulate matter (PM2.5) fraction (namely the US and Europe); where it accounts for the formation of 30% and 50% of all PM2.5 respectively. PM2.5 has the ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and cause long term illnesses such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and lung cancer. Hence, PM2.5 causes economic losses which equate to billions of dollars (US) to the global economy annually. Both premature deaths associated with the health impacts from PM2.5 and economic losses could be mitigated with a reduction in NH3 emissions resulting from agriculture. As agriculture contributes to more than 81% of all global NH3 emissions, it is imperative that food production does not come at a cost to the world's ability to breathe; where reductions in NH3 emissions can be easier to achieve than other associated pollutants.33Scopus© Citations 7 - PublicationAmmoniaN2K: Improving Environmental Assessments for Atmospheric Ammonia(2020-03-04)
; ; ; Since 2016 Ireland has exceeded it’s National Emissions Ceilings Directive limit for ammonia. With government led agricultural expansions (Food Wise 2025) it will be difficult for Ireland not only to meet targets required by the NECD Directive, but also to comply with the EU Habitats Directive to protect against environmental impacts on sensitive sites.55 - PublicationAmóinia? Amóinia? Cad faoi Amóinia?(University College Dublin, 2021-12-07)
; ; ; ; This is a comic aimed at children from the age of eight upwards. It highlights impacts from ammonia in agriculture, plus sources and solutions to the problem.107 - PublicationAnalysis of bed agglomeration during gasification of wheat straw in a bubbling fluidised bed gasifier using mullite as bed material(Elsevier, 2014-03)
; ; ; ; The quantity and composition of the ash content of straw poses technical challenges to its thermal conversion and have been widely reported to cause severe ash sintering and bed agglomeration during fluidised bed gasification. Literature indicates that a combination of reactor design and bed material measures is required to avoid defluidisation at temperatures above 800 °C. Using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy this study investigated the initial agglomeration of a mullite bed during the gasification of wheat straw in a small scale, air blown bubbling fluidised bed. The results show that the temperatures along the height of the bed converge prior to any marked drop in pressure or heating of the lower freeboard. This convergence was seen to occur at temperatures close to 750 °C in repeated gasification experiments. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy indicates coating-induced agglomeration caused by the reaction of alkali metals with silica. Scanning electron microscopy under high magnification revealed a layered structure to the agglomerates, where ash particles are subsumed into a fused material. This suggests the formation of agglomerates by the three step agglomeration process postulated by other authors. Analysis of indices used to predict agglomeration on the basis of a fuel's ash content and composition indicates that the Alkali Index is the most accurate, successfully predicting agglomeration for 7 of the 9 fuels where agglomeration was observed.913Scopus© Citations 27 - PublicationAnalytical criteria to quantify and compare the antioxidant and pro-oxidant capacity in competition assays: The bell protection function(Elsevier, 2014-06)
; ; ; The development of a convenient mathematical application for testing the antioxidant and pro-oxidant potential of standard and novel therapeutic agents is essential for the research community and food industry in order to perform more precise evaluations of products and processes. In this work, a simple non-linear dose–time tool to test the effectiveness of compounds for competitive assays is presented. The model helps to describe accurately the antioxidant and pro-oxidant response as a function of time and dose by two criteria values and allows one to perform easily comparisons of both capacities from different compounds. The quantification procedure developed was applied to two well known in vitro competition assays, the β-carotene and crocin bleaching asymptotic reactions. The dose–time dependency of the response of commercial antioxidants and some expected pro-oxidant compounds was evaluated in this study and the results showed low experimental error. In addition, as an illustrative example of the capabilities of the criteria proposed, the quantification of the combined effect of an antioxidant and a pro-oxidant was analyzed. Afterwards, the model was verified for other relevant competitive methods, using available experimental data from the bibliography. Its application is simple, it provides parametric estimates which characterize the response, and it facilitates rigorous comparisons among the effects of different compounds and experimental approaches. In all experimental data tested, the calculated parameters were always statistically significant (Student's t-test, α = 0.05), the equations were consistent (Fisher's F-test) and the goodness of fit coefficient of determination was higher than 0.98.270Scopus© Citations 1 - PublicationAssessing Real Time GPS Asset Tracking for Timber HaulageThis paper discusses the background to real-time GPS asset tracking in the context of 1) monitoring moving vehicles, 2) the content of the GPS data that is provided as part of the 2 systems that were tested, 3) the theory behind the installation of such tracking systems in terms of GPS, GPRS and internet communications and finally, 4) the assessment of the economic benefits of both systems is also discussed. This involved the installation of 2 different GPS asset tracking providers, Bluetree and Fleetmatics onto 2 timber haulage trucks – an articulated Iveco Stralis 530 6*2 tractor unit with tri-axle road friendly air suspension flat bed trailer with a design gross vehicle weight (d.g.v.w.) equal to 44 000kg. The Scania 124 (400) was a rigid (3 axle) + trailer (3 axle) + crane combination with an equivalent d.g.v.w. of 44 000kg.
578 - PublicationAssessing the Biological Safety of Atmospheric Cold Plasma Treated Wheat Using Cell and Insect Models(MDPI, 2020-07-08)
; ; ; ; Atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) is under investigation for an extensive range of biocontrol applications in food biosystems. However, the development of a novel intervention technology requires a thorough evaluation of the potential for negative effects and the implications for the human and animal food chains' safety. The evaluations were performed using a contained, high-voltage, dielectric barrier discharge plasma system. The cytotoxicity of two types of food models-a liquid model (wheat model medium (WMM)) vs. a solid model (wheat grain extract (WGE)) was compared in vitro using the mammalian cell line CHO-K1. The residual toxicity of ACP treatment of grains for food purposes was assessed using the invertebrate model Tribolium castaneum, by feeding the beetles with flour produced from ACP-treated wheat grains. The cytotoxic effects and changes in the chemistry of the ACP-treated samples were more pronounced in samples treated in a liquid form as opposed to actual wheat grains. The feeding trial using T. castaneum demonstrated no negative impacts on the survivability or weight profiles of insects. Investigations into the interactions of plasma-generated species with secondary metabolites in the food matrices are necessary to ensure the safety of plasma for food applications.89Scopus© Citations 6 - PublicationAssessment of the Impact of Ammonia Emissions from Intensive Agriculture Installations on Special Areas of Conservation and Special Protection Areas(Environmental Protection Agency, 2020-10-06)
; ; ; Atmospheric ammonia poses a significant threat to biodiversity and human health around the world. A high concentration can result in significant changes to the structure of ecosystems, as atmospheric ammonia is particularly harmful to a number of nitrogen-sensitive habitats (bogs, heath, semi-natural grasslands, etc.). In addition, ammonia reacts with other pollutants in the air to form particulate matter, which disperses over great distances. Atmospheric particulate matter has been linked to a range of pulmonary and cardiac issues in humans. Concentrations of ammonia in the air downwind of hotspot sources, such as pig and poultry farms, are likely to negatively affect the environment. The contribution of multiple sources of ammonia to cumulative impacts in Ireland is currently poorly understood. The AmmoniaN2K project aimed to assist the EPA licensing of intensive agriculture installations (pig and poultry farms) in Ireland. This work is particularly relevant to appropriate assessments on Natura 2000 sites under the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC), where modelling of contributions from agricultural sources is required. Emission rates generated and recommendations from detailed monitoring will support future assessments. The identification of farms below the Industrial Emission Directive (2010/75/EU) threshold will also assist the required cumulative impact assessments under appropriate assessment. This information has also aided the spatial reporting of emissions, which has benefited European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme concentration and deposition modelling. The emission rates generated can be used to validate and inform the Pollutant Release and Transfer Register reporting of national emissions in Ireland. Improving inventory reporting is a vital step to ensure compliance with limits set under the National Emissions Ceilings Directive (2016/2284/EU) –Ireland currently exceeds its ammonia emission limit under this directive. Monitoring on Natura 2000 sites has highlighted the need for alternative agricultural practices to reduce this impact. The AmmoniaN2K project quantified and assessed the impact of ammonia emissions from intensive pig and poultry units on Natura 2000 sites in Ireland. This was done by monitoring detailed ammonia emissions from 17 animal production houses across four farms. These rates are compared with best available techniques-ammonia emission levels (BAT-AELs), past monitoring in Ireland and recommended rates by Simple Calculation of Atmospheric Impact Limits (SCAIL-Agriculture). Dispersion modelling of all farms was conducted using monitored rates to identify distance downwind from where both impacts and estimated minimum contributions occurred. An approach to identify farms below the Industrial Emission Directive (2010/75/EU) threshold was developed, in order to identify the total number of intensive agriculture units that are proximal to Natura 2000 sites. The Mapping Ammonia Risk on Sensitive Habitats (MARSH) model, developed as part of this study, assigned a risk of impacts from all sources of ammonia (including cattle and sheep) to Natura 2000 sites in Ireland. This model was checked against monitoring on Natura 2000 sites, which also identified potential impacts at these locations.430 - PublicationAssessment of the influence of media particle size on the biofiltration of odorous exhaust ventilation air from a piggery facilityTwo pilot scale biofiltration systems were constructed and installed at the University College Dublin Research Farm, Lyons Estate. Experimental units consisting of two pens in a 12 pen pig house were sealed off from other pens. Air from each pen was extracted and treated separately in two biofiltration systems. Wood chips larger than 20 mm were selected as the medium for biofiltration system 1, whereas chips of between 10 and 16 mm were used in biofiltration system 2. The moisture content of the media was maintained at 69±4% (w.w.b.) using a load cell method. The volumetric loading rates ranged from 769 to 1847 m3 [gas] m-3 [medium] h-1 over a 63-day experimental period. Both biofilters reduced odour between 88% and 95%. Ammonia removal efficiencies ranged from 64% to 92% and 69% to 93% for biofiltration systems 1 and 2, respectively. Sulphur-containing compounds were reduced between 9-66% and -147-51% across biofiltration systems 1 and 2. The pH of the biofilters' leachate remained between 6 and 8. Pressure drop for biofilter 2 was 16 Pa greater than that of biofilter 1 at the maximum volumetric loading rate of . It is recommended that a wood chip media particle size greater than 20 mm be used for large scale operation of a biofiltration system on intensive pig production facilities to reduce the development of anaerobic zones and to minimize pressure drop on the system fans.
1038Scopus© Citations 59 - PublicationAtmospheric ammonia and nitrogen deposition on Irish Natura 2000 sites: Implications for Irish agriculture(Elsevier, 2021-09-15)
; ; ; ; ; With growing global demand for food, the agriculture sector worldwide is under pressure to intensify and expand, risking acceleration of existing negative biodiversity impacts. Agriculture is the dominant source of ammonia (NH3) emissions, which can impact biodiversity directly through dry deposition as NH3 and by wet deposition following conversion to ammonium (NH4) in the atmosphere. Nitrogen deposition is one of the leading causes of global decline in biodiversity alongside changing land use and climate. Natura 2000 sites which are intended to protect important habitats and species across Europe, require strict levels of protection to ensure designated features achieve favourable conservation status. Many of these sites are nitrogen-limited, and/or contain sensitive species such as lichens or mosses. This project carried out ambient NH3 monitoring on selected Irish Natura 2000 sites, in order to establish potential impacts from agricultural NH3. Monitoring on twelve Natura 2000 sites observed concentrations ranging from 0.47 to 4.59 μg NH3 m−3, from which dry deposition was calculated to be 1.22–11.92 kg N ha−1 yr−1. European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) was used to quantify wet deposited NH4 and nitrogen oxides (NOx), in addition to dry deposited NOx on monitored sites. Estimated total nitrogen deposition ranged between 5.93 and 17.78 kg N ha−1 yr−1. On average across all monitored sites, deposition was comprised of 50.4%, 31.7%, 7.5%, and 10.3% dry NH3, wet NH4, dry NOx and wet NOx respectively. Implications for Irish agriculture are discussed in the light of both this monitoring and the European Commission Dutch Nitrogen Case (C 293/17 & C 294/17), highlighting a number of recommendations to aid compliance with the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).179Scopus© Citations 4 - PublicationAtmospheric Nitrogen Pollution: Sources, Impacts and Solutions(University College Dublin, 2017-05)
; ; ; ; Every year, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Environmental Science Association of Ireland (ESAI) have an open call for Grassroots workshops. These are aimed at encouraging early career researchers to organise workshops relevant to the EPA and ESAI. Grassroots Workshops are an excellent opportunity for early career researchers to disseminate their work and encourage knowledge transfer, ideally establishing new collaborations. This year, a PhD student, David Kelleghan, in UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering was successful when applying to organise a workshop. David is a PhD student researching gaseous emissions and their environmental impact as part of the AmmoniaN2K project in the school. He ran a workshop entitled "Atmospheric Nitrogen Pollution: Sources, Impact and Solutions" in UCD on May 19th, 2017. The event hosted three keynote speakers, namely Prof. Mark Sutton of the Centre of Ecology and Hydrology, in the United Kingdom; Dr. Gary Lanigan of Teagasc and David Dodd of the Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment. The workshop was aimed at gauging the current level of knowledge in Ireland regarding the potential impacts and sources of atmospheric nitrogen pollution. With the new targets under the National Emissions Ceilings (NEC) Directive from the European Union, highlighting the need for a cost effective risk based approach for monitoring air pollution on sensitive ecosystems, this workshop proved timely and facilitated discussion between key stakeholders, international experts and both experienced and early career researchers. This allowed for an open frank discussion about both ongoing research and where this work needs to go in the future.348 - PublicationBenchmarking Environmental Impacts of Peat Use for Electricity Generation in Ireland - A Life Cycle AssessmentThe combustion of peat for energy generation accounts for approximately 4.1% of Ireland’s overall greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with current levels of combustion resulting in the emission of 2.8 Mt of CO2 per annum. The aim of this research is to evaluate the life cycle environmental impacts of peat use for energy generation in Ireland, from peatland drainage and industrial extraction, to transportation, combustion, and subsequent after-use of the cutaway area, utilising Irish-specific emission factors. The environmental impacts considered are global warming potential, acidification potential, and eutrophication potential. In addition, the cumulative energy demand of the system is evaluated. Previous studies on the environmental impact of peat for energy in Ireland relied on default Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission factors (EFs). This research utilises Irish-specific EFs and input data to reduce uncertainty associated with the use of default IPCC EFs, and finds that using default IPCC EFs overestimates the global warming potential when compared to Irish-specific EFs by approximately 2%. The greatest contribution to each of the environmental impacts considered arises from emissions generated during peat combustion, which accounts for approximately 95% of each of the environmental impact categories considered. Other stages of the life-cycle, such as impacts emanating from the peat extraction area, fossil fuel usage in harvesting and transportation machinery, and after-use of the cutaway area have much smaller effects on overall results. The transformation of cutaway peatlands to different after-use alternatives has the potential to mitigate some of the effects of peatland degradation and peat combustion.
437Scopus© Citations 13 - PublicationBiofiltration of n-butyric acid for the control of odourOdour control from pig production facilities is a significant concern due to increased public awareness and the development of more stringent legislation to control production. Although many technologies exist, biofiltration is still the most attractive due to its low maintenance and operating costs. One of the key odour components, n-butyric acid, was selected for a laboratory scale biofilter study. It was examined as a sole carbon substrate in order to investigate the effectiveness of biofiltration in reducing n-butyric acid concentration under different operating conditions using a moist enriched woodchip medium. Three superficial gas velocities; 38.2, 76.4, and 114.6 m h−1 were tested for n-butyric acid concentrations ranging from 0.13 to 3.1 g [n-butyric acid] m−3 [air]. For superficial gas velocities 38.2, 76.4, and 114.6 m h−1, maximum elimination capacities (100% removal) of 148, 113 and 34.4 g m3 h−1, respectively, were achieved. Upon investigation of effective bed height, true elimination capacities (100% removal) of 230, 233 and 103 g m−3 h−1, respectively, were achieved at these superficial gas velocities. Averaged pressure drops for superficial gas velocities 38.2, 76.4, and 114.6 m h−1 were 30, 78 and 120 Pa, respectively. It was concluded that biofiltration is a viable technology for the removal of n-butyric acid from waste exhaust air, but near 100% removal efficiency is required due to the low odour detection threshold for this gaseous compound.
704Scopus© Citations 51 - PublicationBiofuel Production in Ireland—An Approach to 2020 Targets with a Focus on Algal BiomassUnder the Biofuels Obligation Scheme in Ireland, the biofuels penetration rate target for 2013 was set at 6% by volume from a previous 4% from 2010. In 2012 the fuel blend reached 3%, with approximately 70 million L of biodiesel and 56 million L of ethanol blended with diesel and gasoline, respectively. Up to and including April 2013, the current blend rate in Ireland for biodiesel was 2.3% and for bioethanol was 3.7% which equates to approximately 37.5 million L of biofuel for the first four months of 2013. The target of 10% by 2020 remains, which equates to approximately 420 million L yr−1. Achieving the biofuels target would require 345 ktoe by 2020 (14,400 TJ). Utilizing the indigenous biofuels in Ireland such as tallow, used cooking oil and oil seed rape leaves a shortfall of approximately 12,000 TJ or 350 million L (achieving only 17% of the 10% target) that must be either be imported or met by other renewables. Other solutions seem to suggest that microalgae (for biodiesel) and macroalgae (for bioethanol) could meet this shortfall for indigenous Irish production. This paper aims to review the characteristics of algae for biofuel production based on oil yields, cultivation, harvesting, processing and finally in terms of the European Union (EU) biofuels sustainability criteria, where, up to 2017, a 35% greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction is required compared to fossil fuels. From 2017 onwards, a 50% GHG reduction is required for existing installations and from 2018, a 60% reduction for new installations is required.
1212Scopus© Citations 72 - PublicationBiomolecules as Model Indicators of In Vitro and In Vivo Cold Plasma Safety(Frontiers Media, 2021-01-14)
; ; ; ; The potential applications for cold plasma in medicine are extensive, from microbial inactivation and induction of apoptosis in cancer cells to stimulating wound healing and enhancing the blood coagulation cascade. The safe bio-medical application of cold plasma and subsequent effect on complex biological pathways requires precision and a distinct understanding of how physiological redox chemistry is manipulated. Chemical modification of biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids treated with cold plasma have been characterized, however, the context of how alterations of these molecules affect cell behavior or in vivo functionality has not been determined. Thus, this study examines the cytotoxic and mutagenic effects of plasma-treated molecules in vitro using CHO-K1 cells and in vivo in Galleria mellonella larvae. Specifically, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, and arachidonic acid were chosen as representative biomolecules, with established involvement in diverse bioprocesses including; cellular respiration, intracellular transport, cell signaling or membrane structure. Long- and short-term effects depended strongly on the molecule type and the treatment milieu indicating the impact of chemical and physical modifications on downstream biological pathways. Importantly, absence of short-term toxicity did not always correlate with absence of longer-term effects, indicating the need to comprehensively assess ongoing effects for diverse biological applications.67Scopus© Citations 1 - PublicationThe biosystems engineering design challenge at University College Dublin(American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, 2007-01)
; ; ; ; The Biosystems Engineering Design Challenge has recently become an academic module open to all undergraduate students at University College Dublin. The focus of the module is on designing and building a working, bench-scale device that solves a practical problem relevant to Biosystems Engineering. The module provides an opportunity for students to learn about engineering design, project management and teamwork. Enrolled students are split into teams of up to seven and meet an assigned mentor each week during a semester (12 weeks) to solve a specified problem. The objectives thus far have focused on water-driven electricity generation, treatment of greywater from domestic buildings,and biofiltration of malodors from food waste. The assessment criteria include teamwork, minimisation of expenditure, device design, innovation, operational safety, system performance, report writing and appropriate use of biological and recycled materials. External experts evaluate each entry and substantial cash prizes are awarded to the top teams. Students receive individual academic grades based on their contribution. Feedback on the module has been very positive from both inside and outside the University. The most recent developments have been the introduction of an online project journal for each student and the involvement of biosystems engineering graduate students as mentors.212 - PublicationBlueberry supply chain: Critical steps impacting fruit quality and application of a boosted regression tree model to predict weight loss(Elsevier, 2021-09)
; ; ; Blueberries have increased in popularity in recent years due to their nutritional benefits and sensory characteristics. However, to preserve quality and extend shelf-life, they need to be maintained at refrigerated temperatures and high relative humidity, conditions that are not routinely met along the supply chain. Poor temperature management leads to quality deterioration, increasing waste/losses along the supply chain. This study examined the impact of each step along the supply chain on the physichochemical quality and shelf-life of blueberries, identifying the most critical steps from field to consumption. The following steps were identified as critical in the blueberry supply chain: shipping to distribution centre (DC) (72 h at 5 °C), store display (48 h at 15 °C), and consumer (48 h at 20 °C). Given the economic importance of weight loss and its link to fruit quality and shelf-life, a boosted regression tree (BRT) model was built to predict weight loss using the post-harvest environmental conditions of a simulated supply chain applying different temperature-time scenarios. The model explained 84 % of the variance on the test set and highlighted the interactions of supply chain conditions on weight loss.69Scopus© Citations 15 - PublicationBubbling fluidised bed gasification of wheat straw-gasifier performance using mullite as bed material(Elsevier, 2015-05)
; ; ; ; The adoption of wheat straw as a fuel for gasification processes has been hindered due to a lack of experience and its propensity to cause bed agglomeration in fluidised bed gasifiers. In this study wheat straw was gasified in a small scale, air blown bubbling fluidised bed using mullite as bed material. The gasifier was successfully operated and isothermal bed conditions maintained at temperatures up to 750 ◦C. Below this temperature, the gasifier was operated at equivalence ratios from 0.1 to 0.26. The maximum lower heating value of the producer gas was approximately 3.6 MJm−3 at standard temperature and pressure (STP) conditions and was obtained at an equivalence ratio of 0.165. In general, a producer gas with a lower heating value of approximately 3 MJm−3 at STP could be obtained across the entire range of equivalence ratios operated. The lower heating value tended to fluctuate, however, and it was considered more appropriate for use in heat applications than as a fuel for internal combustion engines. The concentration of combustibles in the producer gas was lower than that obtained from the gasification of wheat straw in a dual distributor type gasifier and a circulating fluidised bed. These differences were associated with reactor design and, in the case of the circulating fluidised bed, with higher temperatures. Equilibrium modelling at adiabatic conditions, which provides the maximum performance of the system, showed that the gasifier was operating at suboptimal equivalence ratios to achieve greatest efficiencies. The maximum calculated theoretical cold gas efficiency of 73% was obtained at an equivalence ratio of 0.35.797Scopus© Citations 8