Who, how, and when do children help? A systematic review of children's outgroup prosocial behavior

Given the ingroup bias in children's prosocial behaviors, understanding what characterizes and predicts children's prosocial behaviors directed at outgroups has implications for more harmonious intergroup relations. We conducted a systematic review outlining the important theoretical frameworks that drive research in this area and examined the targets, types, and predictors surrounding prosocial behavior toward socially relevant outgroups among children ages 3–12 years. A total of 24 studies were included in the narrative synthesis. A range of targets of prosocial behavior (i.e., who was the intended recipient of the act) was observed and included both individual outgroup members and the collective outgroup. The studies also varied in the types of outgroup prosocial behavior assessed, including resource allocation, helping intentions, and collective prosocial behavior. Predictors of prosocial behavior occurred at two levels: individual and contextual. Individual predictors included contact, outgroup stereotypes, essentialist beliefs, empathy and mentalization, and fairness. Contextual factors included geographic proximity, reciprocity and collaboration, cost of helping, structural inequality, and intergroup conflict. Finally, we focus on age-related changes to map the developmental trajectory of both the characteristics and predictors of prosocial behaviors. In a divided world, the implications for future research on outgroup prosocial behavior during childhood are discussed. We also reflect on the need for future longitudinal and culturally embedded research.