So much left unsaid: Genetic insights into the roles and experiences of females and children in past societies

This dissertation explores the intersection of ancient DNA (aDNA) research, archaeology, and anthropology, focusing on individuals often overlooked in historical narratives, specifically children and adult females. The thesis has two primary objectives: to advance the theoretical and practical frameworks of aDNA research and to present original research conducted as part of an interdisciplinary team. The background section outlines the ethical guidelines of aDNA sampling and analysis, followed by a detailed discussion of genetic sex estimation, ancestry reconstruction, and genetic relatedness. The body of the dissertation comprises three research papers. The first paper, submitted for publication, presents the genetic analysis of an individual from the Antikythera. This analysis offers insights into mobility patterns in the ancient Mediterranean through this individual’s genetic ancestry, challenging previous assumptions about gender and identity. The second paper, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science Reports, examines the genetic relationship between two neonatal burials from a prehistoric site in Armenia, revealing them as second-degree relatives. This research demonstrates the potential of aDNA to uncover biological relatedness and inform interpretations of ancient burial practices. The final paper, under review in Nature Human Behaviour, investigates a mass grave from Gomolava, Southeast Europe, dating to the Early Iron Age. By combining analyses from multiple disciplines, the study reconstructs the life experiences, health, and possible causes of death of the individuals buried there, situating the burial event within broader socio-political conflicts of the period.