Education Theses

Literature exploring autism in female populations is characterised by its predominant quantitative methodology and child participant focus. First-hand accounts of those whose lives are most impacted by ASD are limited to a number of small scale qualitative studies leaving much unknown as to how autistic women in particular experience their lives. Findings from these studies in conjunction with autistic life writings produced by women on the Autism Spectrum have begun to expand and deepen the narratives surrounding autism. A comprehensive general literature review followed by a state-of -the-art literature review of first person adult female perspectives aims to contextualise the lived experiences of women with ASD. A qualitative methodology was adopted using a constructionist Reflexive Thematic Analysis method and aims to add to the currently limited body of knowledge about female autism as a subjective and socially contextualised experience. Using on-line recruitment, semi-structured interviews with sixteen women who had a diagnosis of ASD were conducted. Two major themes, ‘male-centric view of autism’ and ‘gender-based role expectations’ were developed from discussion of women’s experiences. Combined, these themes served to contextualise the impact of intersecting cultural ideologies on women’s sense of self and psychological wellbeing. Findings are discussed in relation to dominant theoretical conceptualisations of autism, adult psychosocial outcomes and the emerging construction of autism in women in the guise of ‘the female phenotype’. Clinical implications of findings in terms of service provision, assessment and diagnosis are outlined alongside recommendations for further research and the limitations of the study.

One of the key benefits that a virtual world can provide to their users and community is the ability to communicate (via text and audio) and to express emotions (via gestures, facial expressions, etc.) on an interpersonal level. Virtual worlds provide contexts that allow users to interact in a variety of ways, and to express themselves through their individually designed avatars. Virtual environments and collaborative virtual environments have therefore been used in several studies with the aim of helping people with autism to interact, to communicate and to understand social skills. This thesis examines the work of others within the domain of virtual environments and autism, in an effort to understand debates and experiments that have led to some successful outcomes in helping people with autism to interact in a safe and secure environment. The conclusions of the research have been derived through a case study and by embedding a virtual world (Second Life) into a classroom for children on the autism spectrum. The case study group of autism participants consisted of eight 15 to 16 year olds, with 15 typically developing participants between 18 and 21 years of age. The case study lasted over eight sessions and three months, although the researcher was involved with the school for 12 months (to help with virtual world set up and design; designing in-world sessions). During the sessions social tasks were devised (e.g. visiting a coffee shop, fun fair rides, restaurant), with several opportunities for the participants to use the space as they desired.This thesis is offered as an original and substantial contribution to the fields of knowledge of assistive technology, autism and information and communication technology, focusing specifically on the role that a virtual world can play in a classroom for children on the autism spectrum. More specifically, this thesis explores social communication patterns in virtual worlds, visual representation of self through an avatar, and appropriateness of communication interactions in a virtual world used by young people on the autism spectrum. Visual representation of self is discussed by comparison to the typically developing group.Several main areas of innovation are detailed in the research: firstly, the finding that avatar representation for users with autism seems to be led by the body rather than the face; secondly, that the fidelity of the avatar seems to hold limited relevance for this user group; and thirdly, that communication in virtual worlds is expressed almost entirely though text chat and in a way that tends to lend itself to some inappropriate comments, although these tended to be far less than appropriate conversations recorded in the current study.The original and substantial contribution to knowledge of this thesis is an addition to our understanding of ways in which users with autism interact and represent themselves in a virtual world. Future scholars will be able to build on this, to consider the role that avatar customisation and design play in virtual-world interaction for users with autism. In addition, scholars in the fields of interaction will be able to take several findings associated with computer-mediated communication and apply to design related subjects; especially with emerging fields such as touch screen devices. Implications for avatar-mediated interfaces could also be informed by the findings presented in this thesis, especially the role of 3D and 2D avatars for users with autism. Moreover, this thesis presents original findings on preference for communication play in a virtual world that could impact on the role gestures, facial features and text communication in interactive interfaces.

Autism can have implications for educational engagement. This creates a need for appropriate educational support. A growing model of support provision is the concept of a special class setting co-located within a mainstream school. This doctoral thesis aims to investigate the role of a special class setting in supporting the education of pupils with autism in a mainstream school. This is approached through completion of a systematic literature review and an empirical journal article. Through a process of narrative synthesis, systematic literature review results were integrated to establish current understandings on the role of a special class setting. Empirical journal article research then extended such knowledge through completion of case study of a special class setting in a mainstream primary school in Ireland, from a complex dynamic systems perspective. Research findings highlighted the contributory role of a special class setting in facilitating educational support for pupils with autism, and identified areas where further development may enhance support provision. Findings are discussed in respect of implications for practice, policy, and future research.

The issue of the challenges of assessing autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in females is a recurring theme in the ASD research literature. Differing presentations of ASD in females, lower prevalence ratios due to unknown reasons, as well as limitations of standardised assessment instruments used, are some of the reasons described as causing or contributing to these challenges. However, clinicians are rarely asked about their experiences of assessing ASD and, to date, the experiences of psychologists in assessing ASD in girls has yet to be explored. Based on the findings of a Republic of Ireland-wide survey, the experiences of 91 psychologists working in children’s services who were clinically active in autism assessments were explored. Quantitative data was primarily gathered, but qualitative data was also gathered via open-ended questions. Findings indicated that psychologists accessed different training opportunities during professional training and post-qualification. Psychologists had more experience assessing ASD in boys, and psychologists who had completed more assessments with girls, indicated higher levels of confidence in assessing ASD in girls. Findings also indicated that psychologists’ confidence in using clinical judgement during ASD assessments was positively correlated with the number of years’ experience assessing ASD, which has significant implications for assessing ASD in girls. Psychologists also reported that girls were more likely than boys to be sub-threshold on screening instruments and diagnostic assessment measures. Psychologists indicated that there were specific challenges related to assessing autism in girls, and they also identified particular ‘red flags’ for identifying autism in girls, as well as specific assessment practices for over-coming such challenges. Finally, survey data was used to compile information and guidelines that could be used by psychologists to inform assessment practices when assessing ASD in girls, as the majority of psychologists indicated that they would welcome the publication of best practice guidelines in this area.